New Nation Unit
Unit Opener: Nowadays, the U.S. Constitution is considered a sacred document, but after the Constitutional Convention there was great debate over whether or not to ratify the document. Out of this debate came two groups with two very different opinions on the matter. The Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, believed that the country needed a strong national government and therefore approved of the Constitution as is. The Anti-Federalists, on the other hand, did not support ratification of the Constitution because they thought it created a national government with too much power, and it said nothing about the people's rights.
Following ratification of the Constitution, and the newly added Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalists' popularity died out. However, out of their ashes came a new group, led by Thomas Jefferson: The Democratic-Republicans. During the first two Presidencies of the U.S., Alexander Hamilton's Federalists and Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans (Republicans) would evolve from opinionated groups into powerful political parties that would work diligently to shape the policies of our young nation. Little did they know then, that political parties would still be shaping American policies 200 years later.
Following ratification of the Constitution, and the newly added Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalists' popularity died out. However, out of their ashes came a new group, led by Thomas Jefferson: The Democratic-Republicans. During the first two Presidencies of the U.S., Alexander Hamilton's Federalists and Thomas Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans (Republicans) would evolve from opinionated groups into powerful political parties that would work diligently to shape the policies of our young nation. Little did they know then, that political parties would still be shaping American policies 200 years later.
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On April 30, 1789, George Washington took the oath of office as the first president of the United States. After his inauguration, Washington addressed both houses of Congress. He asked Congress to work with him to put into place “the wise measures on which the success of this government must depend.” At times, his hands shook so much that he had trouble reading his speech. Washington had reason to be nervous. The first Congress was deeply divided. Some members were eager to build a strong national government. Others were just as eager to limit the power of the new government.
Domestic Issues
Foreign Issues
The French Revolution: Meanwhile, the nation was caught up in a debate over events in France. In 1789, the French people rebelled against their king. The leaders of the French Revolution dreamed of building a nation based on “liberty, equality, and fraternity [brotherhood].” Three years later, France became a republic and declared “a war of all peoples against all kings.”
Many Americans were thrilled by the French Revolution. This was especially true of Jefferson and his followers, who began calling themselves Democratic-Republicans, or simply Republicans. The Republicans saw the French Revolution as part of a great crusade for democracy.
In time, news from France caused supporters of the revolution to change their opinion. Cheered on by angry mobs, France’s revolutionary government began beheading wealthy nobles. Some 20,000 men, women, and children were killed.
Hamilton and his followers, who called themselves Federalists, were appalled by the bloodshed. Many Federalists were themselves wealthy. After hearing about the fate of wealthy families in France, they began to fear for their own safety, wondering whether such terrors could happen in the United States. “Behold France,” warned one Federalist, “an open hell . . . in which we see . . . perhaps our own future.” Washington, however, declared neutrality.
Many Americans were thrilled by the French Revolution. This was especially true of Jefferson and his followers, who began calling themselves Democratic-Republicans, or simply Republicans. The Republicans saw the French Revolution as part of a great crusade for democracy.
In time, news from France caused supporters of the revolution to change their opinion. Cheered on by angry mobs, France’s revolutionary government began beheading wealthy nobles. Some 20,000 men, women, and children were killed.
Hamilton and his followers, who called themselves Federalists, were appalled by the bloodshed. Many Federalists were themselves wealthy. After hearing about the fate of wealthy families in France, they began to fear for their own safety, wondering whether such terrors could happen in the United States. “Behold France,” warned one Federalist, “an open hell . . . in which we see . . . perhaps our own future.” Washington, however, declared neutrality.
Jay's Treaty: Relations with Britain, still smarting from the loss of her colonies, worsened in the early 1790s. From the American perspective, issues included seizure from American ships of cargoes unrelated to war, impressment of American seamen and continuing British occupation of western posts within U.S. borders.
In 1794, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay was dispatched to England to seek solutions. The resulting agreement stirred up heated passions within the cabinet with Hamilton supporting the agreement and Jefferson opposing it. Key provisions included:
Missing from the treaty was a provision for the British to refrain from the arrest of American ships and impressment of American seamen.
In 1794, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay was dispatched to England to seek solutions. The resulting agreement stirred up heated passions within the cabinet with Hamilton supporting the agreement and Jefferson opposing it. Key provisions included:
- The withdrawal of British soldiers from posts in the American West
- A commission to be established to settle outstanding border issues between the U.S. and Canada
- A commission to be established to resolve American losses in British ship seizures and Loyalist losses during the War of Independence.
Missing from the treaty was a provision for the British to refrain from the arrest of American ships and impressment of American seamen.
Washington's Farewell Address
The growing division between Republicans and Federalists so disturbed Washington that he agreed to run for a second term as president in 1792. He was the only person, Hamilton and Jefferson told him, who could keep the nation together.
Near the end of his second term, Washington announced that he would not run again. Before leaving office, the president prepared a message that became known as Washington’s Farewell Address. In it, he reminded Americans of all that bound them together as a people. “With slight shades of difference,” he said, “you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together.” Next, Washington warned of two threats to the nation’s future. One of those threats was problems the nation was having with other countries. The other threat was the “spirit of party.” It was natural for people to hold different opinions, Washington said. But he warned against the dangers of passionate loyalty to parties. If fighting between parties was not controlled, it could tear the young nation apart. |
Despite his worries for the future, Washington had much to be proud of as he left office. The new government was up and running. The nation was growing so fast that it had added three new states: Kentucky, Tennessee, and Vermont. Most of all, Washington had steered his government safely through quarrelsome times. He left the nation united and at peace.
3. In Washington's farewell address, what did he mean when referred to the threat of "spirit of party"? |
Adam's Wins the Presidency: When the framers of the Constitution created the Electoral College, they imagined that the electors would simply choose the two best leaders for president and vice president. That was how the nation’s first two presidential elections worked. By the third election in 1796, however, it was clear that political parties had become part of the election process.
The Republicans supported Thomas Jefferson for president that year. His support came mainly from farmers in the South and West. The Federalists supported John Adams, who appealed to lawyers, merchants, ship owners, and business people in the North. When the electoral votes were counted, John Adams was elected president by just three votes. Jefferson came in second, making him vice president. The nation’s new top two leaders were political leaders from opposing parties. The Adams administration faced several severe tests. Beyond considerable problems in his own party, Adams also faced a major international crisis. The French were outraged by what they viewed as an ANGLO-AMERICAN ALLIANCE in Jay's Treaty. France suspended diplomatic relations with the U.S. at the end of 1796 and seized more than 300 American ships over the next two years. Adams, sent ambassadors to France where they encountered an unstable French government that sent its own officials (referred to as "X" "Y" and "Z" in the published papers) to meet the Americans. The French officials, on behalf of foreign minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord sought a bribe, a loan, and an apology from the Americans. |
The negotiations angered Adams, who asked Congress to support defense measures. Congress was skeptical of Adams and demanded that he publish the correspondence that he had received from the American diplomats. Adams complied and Congress was angered, viewing the French as insulting America. A two-year undeclared war followed.
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The Alien and Sedition Acts:The strong steps that Adams took in response to the French foreign threat also included severe repression of domestic rights. A series of laws known collectively as the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS were passed by the Federalist Congress in 1798 and signed into law by President Adams. These laws included new powers to DEPORT foreigners as well as making it harder for new IMMIGRANTS to vote. Previously a new immigrant would have to reside in the United States for five years before becoming eligible to vote, but a new law raised this to 14 years.
The most controversial of the new laws permitting strong government control over individual actions was the SEDITION ACT. In essence, this Act prohibited public opposition to the government. Fines and imprisonment could be used against those who "write, print, utter, or publish . . . any false, scandalous and malicious writing" against the government.
Under the terms of this law over 20 Republican newspaper editors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The most dramatic victim of the law was REPRESENTATIVE MATTHEW LYON of Vermont. His letter that criticized President Adams' "unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and self avarice" caused him to be imprisoned. While Federalists sent Lyon to prison for his opinions, his constituents reelected him to Congress even from his jail cell.
The most controversial of the new laws permitting strong government control over individual actions was the SEDITION ACT. In essence, this Act prohibited public opposition to the government. Fines and imprisonment could be used against those who "write, print, utter, or publish . . . any false, scandalous and malicious writing" against the government.
Under the terms of this law over 20 Republican newspaper editors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The most dramatic victim of the law was REPRESENTATIVE MATTHEW LYON of Vermont. His letter that criticized President Adams' "unbounded thirst for ridiculous pomp, foolish adulation, and self avarice" caused him to be imprisoned. While Federalists sent Lyon to prison for his opinions, his constituents reelected him to Congress even from his jail cell.
The Sedition Act clearly violated individual protections under the first amendment of the Constitution; however, the practice of "JUDICIAL REVIEW," whereby the Supreme Court considers the constitutionality of laws was not yet well developed. Furthermore, the justices were all strong Federalists. As a result, Madison and Jefferson directed their opposition to the new laws to state legislatures. The Virginia and Kentucky legislatures passed resolutions declaring the federal laws invalid within their states. The bold challenge to the federal government offered by this strong states' rights position seemed to point toward imminent armed conflict within the United States.
The harsh public antagonism of the 1790s largely came to an end with the victory of the Democratic- Republicans in the 1800 election.
The Election of 1800: The election of 1800, between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson was an emotional and hard-fought campaign. Each side believed that victory by the other would ruin the nation. The election's outcome brought a dramatic victory for Democratic-Republicans who swept both houses of Congress, including a decisive 65 to 39 majority in the House of Representatives. The presidential decision in the electoral college was somewhat closer, but the most intriguing aspect of the presidential vote stemmed from an outdated Constitutional provision whereby the Republican candidates for president and vice president actually ended up tied with one another. Votes for President and Vice President were not listed on separate ballots. Although Adams ran as Jefferson's main opponent, running mates Jefferson and AARON BURR received the same number of electoral votes. The election was decided in the House of Representatives where each state wielded a single vote. To Jefferson and his supporters, the defeat of the Federalists ended their attempt to lead America on a more conservative and less democratic course. Since the Federalists never again played a national political role after the defeat in 1800, it seems that most American voters of the era shared Jefferson's view. Political leaders and parties played a pivotal role shaping the new nation because they could serve as outlets for large numbers of people to express their opinions about issues of public significance. Jeffersonian Democracy: Jefferson and his values serve as a useful organizing tool to think about the changes that America experienced in the first decade of the nineteenth century. JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY refers to an American ideal as well as to a remarkably successful political movement. At the heart of both meanings of the term lies the household farm worked by ordinary families. Jeffersonian America marked a victory for common farmers as both the ideal embodiment of the American citizen and as a practical reality of who voted. Jeffersonian America, however, also exposed the deeply contradictory nature of the United States at the start of the 19th century. |
Directions:
1. Use the Information below to complete the Electoral College Map 2. Use the information contained in the chart on the next page to answer page 3 questions.
To merely celebrate or condemn, seeing one side, but not the other, is to judge without attempting to understand. Seeing how the best and the worst of Jeffersonian America were deeply intermixed, and continue to inform American life in our transformed circumstances of the 21st century, is among the most important purposes of historical inquiry.
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Marbury v. Madison: The Birth of Judicial Review
Thomas Jefferson, a member of the Republican Party, won the election of 1800. The outgoing President, John Adams, proceeded to rapidly appoint 58 members of his own party to fill government posts created by Congress. It was the responsibility of the Secretary of State, John Marshall, to “deliver the commissions,” finish the paperwork, and give it to each of the newly appointed judges. Although Marshall signed and sealed all of the commissions, he failed to deliver 17 of them to the respective appointees. Marshall assumed that his successor would finish the job.
When Jefferson became President, he told his new Secretary of State, James Madison, not to deliver some of the commissions, because he did not want members of the opposing political party to take office. Those individuals couldn’t take office until they actually had their commissions in hand. William Marbury, whom Adams had appointed as justice of the peace of the District of Columbia, was one of these last-minute appointees who did not receive his commission. Marbury sued James Madison and asked the Supreme Court of the United States to issue a writ of mandamus, a court order that requires an official to perform or refrain from performing a certain duty. In this case, the writ would have ordered Madison to deliver the commission. Marbury argued that he was entitled to his commission and that the Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Supreme Court of the United States original jurisdiction to issue a writ of mandamus. Madison disagreed. When the case came before the Court, John Marshall — the person who had failed to deliver the commission in the first place — was the new Chief Justice. If this situation were to arise today, Marshall would likely disqualify himself because of a conflict of interest. The Court had to decide whether Marbury was entitled to his job, and if so, whether the Judiciary Act of 1789 gave the Court the authority it needed to force the Secretary of State to appoint Marbury to his position. Supreme Court of the United States Marbury v. Madison (1803) The Supreme Court of the United States declared that:
By declaring part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional, the Supreme Court of the United States asserted that it had the power to review acts of other branches and determine their constitutionality. This power is called judicial review. Justice Marshall argued that the people of this nation had adopted the Constitution as the supreme law of the land and consented to be governed by its rules. These rules include important limitations upon the powers of Congress. When Congress violates those limitations, it has violated the will of the people. Marshall argued that if the Supreme Court could not strike down such acts, there would be no effective way to enforce the constitutional limits on the powers of Congress. |
Directions:
1. Download the file below 2. Read the selection on the Marbury v. Madison Supreme Court Case 3. Answer the questions
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The Louisiana Purchase: By 1800, there were over one million Americans living in the area between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, and most of them were farming families. The fact that this area was undeveloped (few roads, bridges, or tunnels) meant that these farmers had to ship their goods down the Mississippi River so they could reach consumers in different states.
At the southern end of the Mississippi River was the city of New Orleans. Though this city was controlled by the French, it was extremely important to Americans because the ships that traveled down the Mississippi River had to pass through the port of New Orleans to reach the Gulf of Mexico and onward to the Atlantic Ocean. The Lewis and Clark Expedition: Because of its great importance, President Jefferson sent two advisers to France to try to negotiate the purchase of the city of New Orleans. When the advisers arrived, they discovered that France was in need of money, and thus they would indeed sell New Orleans...but only if the U.S. agreed to buy the entire Louisiana Territory along with it. Watch this video to the right and read the following text to answer the MOD 1 questions below. Jefferson's advisers didn't have time to relay the offer back to the President and wait for a response, so they instead decided on their own to strike a deal. Of course President Jefferson didn't mind because with one enormous purchase, the United States was now nearly double the size, and all for the low, low price of $15 million. (In today's dollars, that would be about $283 million. That may sound like a lot, but keep in mind that the U.S. currently spends nearly $4 trillion every year. It was an absolute bargain.) Even before the purchase was made, Jefferson was planning on sending out an expedition to explore the western territories, so of course once he found out that the U.S. now owned a large part of it, he excitedly sent Lewis & Clark on their way. Directions: Use the reading and videos to learn about the Louisiana Purchase and answer the following questions.
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Storm Clouds Gather:
When President James Madison took office in 1809, he tried a new approach to protecting Americans at sea by offering France and Great Britain. He tried to strike a deal: If you agree to cease your attacks on American ships, the United States will stop trading with your enemy. Napoleon promptly agreed to Madison's offer. At the same time, Napoleon's navy continued seizing American ships headed for British ports. Madison, who desperately wanted to believe Napoleon's false promise, cut off all trade with Great Britain. Meanwhile, the British continued seizing ships and impressing American sailors. Madison saw only one way to force Great Britain to respect American rights. He began to think about abandoning George Washington's policy of isolationism and going to war with Great Britain. New Englanders and Federalists generally opposed going to war. In Congress these individuals were known as DOVES. Merchants in New England knew that war would mean a blockade of their ports by the British navy and preferred to take their chances with the troubles at sea. Many people in the South and to the west, however, supported going to war. These individuals were known as WAR HAWKS or simply HAWKS Like all Americans, they resented Great Britain's policy of impressing U.S. sailors, and they also accused the British of stirring up trouble among American Indians in the states and territories to the northwest. Trouble with the Indians was growing as well, as settlers moved into the Ohio and Mississippi valleys and pushed Indians off their lands. Two Shawnee Indians—a chief named Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet—tried to fight back by uniting Indians along the Mississippi River into one great Indian nation. On November 7, 1811, a militia force led by Indiana governor William Henry Harrison fought against Shawnee warriors at Tippecanoe Creek. Although Harrison defeated the Indian forces, after the battle, Harrison's men discovered that the Indians were armed with British guns. Americans were outraged. Several young congressmen from the South and West, including Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, were so eager for war with Great Britain that they were nicknamed “War Hawks.” They argued that to make the northwestern frontier safe for settlers, the United States needed to drive the British out of Canada. Once that was done, Canada could be added to the United States. Calls for War: Losses at sea, national pride, and a desire to make the frontier safe for settlement all contributed to the enthusiasm for war, but Madison still hesitated. Was the nation strong enough to launch the arrows of war, or should Madison hold tightly to the olive branch of peace? James Madison chose to abandon isolationism. At his request, Congress declared war on Great Britain on June 18, 1812. This was a bold step for a nation with an army of 7,000 poorly trained men and a navy of only 16 ships. War Hawks were overjoyed when the War of 1812 began. They thought that conquering Canada was “a mere matter of marching.” They were wrong. In 1812, 1813, and again in 1814 U.S. forces crossed into Canada, but each time British forces drove them back. The British, too, found the going much rougher than expected. On September 10, 1813, a U.S. naval force under the command of Oliver Hazard Perry captured a British fleet of six ships on Lake Erie. Perry's victory enabled William Henry Harrison to push into Upper Canada, where he defeated the British in a major battle. Chief Tecumseh, who was fighting on the side of the British, was killed. However, in December, the British drove the Americans back across the border. |
The war begins in earnest
By 1814, Napoleon had been defeated in Europe, and Great Britain was able to send thousands of troops across the Atlantic. American plans to conquer Canada came to an end. Meanwhile, in August 1814, another British army invaded Washington, D.C. The British burned several public buildings, including the Capitol and the White House. President Madison had to flee for his life. Next the British attacked the port city of Baltimore, Maryland. On September 13, an American lawyer named Francis Scott Key watched as the British bombarded Fort McHenry, which guarded the city's harbor. The bombardment went on all night. When dawn broke, Key was thrilled to see that the American flag still waved over the fort, proving that the fort had not been captured. He expressed his feelings in a poem that was later put to music as “The Star-Spangled Banner.” |
Era of Good Feelings 1816-1824
Foreign Policy:
Rush Bagot Treaty Rush-Bagot Convention (rŭsh-băgˈət) [key], 1817, agreement between the United States and Great Britain concerning the Canadian border. It consisted of the exchange of notes signed by Richard Rush, Acting Secretary of State of the United States, and Charles Bagot, British minister in Washington. In 1818 the U.S. Senate gave its consent to the notes, thus giving them the authority of a treaty. The convention provided for practical disarmament on the U.S.-Canadian frontier; each nation should have no more than four warships, none to exceed 100 tons, on the Great Lakes. The agreement, a result of negotiations begun after the signing of the Treaty of Ghent, was important because it set a precedent for the pacific settlement of Anglo-American difficulties and because it inaugurated a policy of peace between the United States and Canada. Only one move was made to abrogate it—during the Civil War strained relations with Canada caused the Secretary of State, William H. Seward, to announce (1864) that the United States intended to abrogate, but before the six months of grace had elapsed the announcement was canceled (1865). Adams-Onis Treaty: The first major expansion of the United States, the Louisiana Purchase, was acquired through diplomacy, or negotiations. President Jefferson next turned to Florida, which was controlled by Spain. Southern plantation holders had been pressuring the government to take over Florida because runaway slaves had often sought refuge there. On top of that, Seminole Indians were raiding plantations in Georgia and running back to Florida, where the U.S. could not chase them. Hearing the complaints of southern farmers, Jefferson decided to send diplomats to try and buy the land from Spain, but Spain refused. As the years passed, the Spanish government continued to do nothing to stop the raids on farms in Georgia by Seminoles and ex-slaves. It wasn't until the year of 1818, when President Monroe had finally had enough. Fed up with Spain's lack of governing, he decided to send Andrew Jackson, the hero of the Battle of New Orleans, to stop the raids. Though Jackson was told not to invade Florida, he ignored his orders and crossed the Florida border with 1,700 troops, captured Spanish military posts, and arrested, tried, and executed two men for stirring up Indian attacks. With Jackson invading Florida, the situation had clearly gotten out of hand, and neither side wanted to go to war. Still, President Monroe decided to send his Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams, with a strong message for Spain: "Govern Florida properly, or get out!" Spain decided that Florida was more trouble than it was worth and so they got out. In a deal that is known as the Adams-Onis Treaty, Spain would give Florida over to the United States. In exchange, the U.S. would give Spain $5 million dollars and agree to honor Spain’s longtime claim to Texas. Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine was announced in President James Monroe's message to Congress, during his second term on Dec. 2, 1823, in part as follows: “In the discussions to which this interest has given rise, and in the arrangements by which they may terminate, the occasion has been deemed proper for asserting as a principle in which rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power. . . . We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments who have declared their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them or controlling in any other manner their destiny by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.” |
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Industrial Revolution
End of an Era: Election of 1824
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