Age of Jacksonian
Despite the words "all men are created equal", up until the 1820s only wealthy, white men could lawfully vote. However, as the nation expanded west, voting laws changed to give the "common man" the right to vote, and this ushered in an era known as Jacksonian Democracy. It's called Jacksonian Democracy, because in 1828 these "common man" voters elected Andrew Jackson to be the 7th President of the United States. Jackson was largely seen as a man who would represent the common people and stand up to rich.
During his presidency, Jackson squared off in two major political battles. One was with South Carolina over the issue of tariffs, or import taxes. The other was with the Central Bank of the United States, which Jackson thought benefited rich bankers, at the expense of farmers and workers. Still, today Jackson is most known for his policies on American Indians. As settlers moved west, they continued to displace the tribes that had been living there for centuries. Jackson, who was a well known Indian hater, helped pass a law known as the Indian Removal Act, which kicked tribes off their land, and moved them to "Indian Territory" (present day Oklahoma). Over several years, many Indians would perish along this 2,000 mile journey known as the Trail of Tears. |
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Jackson, Before the Presidency
Nowadays, you'll find Andrew Jackson's face on a twenty dollar bill. However, this not without controversy. Jackson was a controversial figure during his time, and he continues to divide Americans today.
To say that Andrew Jackson was a little rough around the edges would be an understatement. By the time Jackson moved to Nashville, Tennessee, he had developed a reputation for being a "horse-racing, card-playing, mischievous fellow" and was known for his hot temper. He even once killed a man in a duel with pistols after the man called him "a worthless scoundrel". This behavior however, did not prevent Jackson from becoming a fine lawyer, a gentleman farmer, and a successful politician. On top of this, Jackson was an Army General, and his victory at the Battle of New Orleans turned him into a national hero. Jackson's popularity skyrocketed with the American people, especially the common folk. They began calling him "Old Hickory", because he was as hard as Hickory (a type of tree).
In 1824, Jackson ran for President. The election turned out to be one of the most unique in American history. Jackson had run as a Democratic Republican, against four other members of his party. When the votes were tallied, Jackson had the most votes, but none of the candidates had enough votes to win, so the decision went to the House of Representatives. Henry Clay who had come in fourth, worked out a shady deal with John Quincy Adams (the son of John Adams) who had come in second: Clay would convince members in the House to vote for Quincy, if Quincy would appoint Clay as his Secretary of State. The shady deal worked, and the House elected John Quincy Adams as the 6th President of the United States. Jackson would have to wait.
To say that Andrew Jackson was a little rough around the edges would be an understatement. By the time Jackson moved to Nashville, Tennessee, he had developed a reputation for being a "horse-racing, card-playing, mischievous fellow" and was known for his hot temper. He even once killed a man in a duel with pistols after the man called him "a worthless scoundrel". This behavior however, did not prevent Jackson from becoming a fine lawyer, a gentleman farmer, and a successful politician. On top of this, Jackson was an Army General, and his victory at the Battle of New Orleans turned him into a national hero. Jackson's popularity skyrocketed with the American people, especially the common folk. They began calling him "Old Hickory", because he was as hard as Hickory (a type of tree).
In 1824, Jackson ran for President. The election turned out to be one of the most unique in American history. Jackson had run as a Democratic Republican, against four other members of his party. When the votes were tallied, Jackson had the most votes, but none of the candidates had enough votes to win, so the decision went to the House of Representatives. Henry Clay who had come in fourth, worked out a shady deal with John Quincy Adams (the son of John Adams) who had come in second: Clay would convince members in the House to vote for Quincy, if Quincy would appoint Clay as his Secretary of State. The shady deal worked, and the House elected John Quincy Adams as the 6th President of the United States. Jackson would have to wait.
Though Jackson lost the election, he rallied enough support to form a new political party, the Democratic Party. This new party, they promised, would represent ordinary farmers, workers, and the poor, not the rich and upper class who controlled the Republican Party. It's no coincidence that during the same time, voting laws were changing. While Black people, Native Americans and women were still restricted from voting, the "common" man (non wealthy white men) were now legally allowed to vote. When Jackson ran for President again in 1828, this new class of voters turned out and gave Jackson a great victory.
Jackson was a different kind of President from the start. After Jackson was sworn in as President, a huge crowd followed him to the White House for an inauguration party. The party quickly got out of hand and turned into a riot. Jackson had to escape out the back door. Despite the crazy start, Jackson's win was also a win for the idea that the common people should control their government. This idea eventually became known as Jacksonian Democracy.
Jackson was a different kind of President from the start. After Jackson was sworn in as President, a huge crowd followed him to the White House for an inauguration party. The party quickly got out of hand and turned into a riot. Jackson had to escape out the back door. Despite the crazy start, Jackson's win was also a win for the idea that the common people should control their government. This idea eventually became known as Jacksonian Democracy.
Jackson vs. the 2nd U.S. Bank
There is a certain irony about Jackson being on the $20 bill. Jackson saw himself as the champion of the people, and never more so than in his war with the Bank of the United States. The Bank was partly owned by the federal government, and it had a monopoly on federal deposits. Jackson thought that the Bank benefited rich Eastern investors at the expense of farmers and workers as well as smaller state banks. He felt that the powerful Bank stood in the way of opportunity for hopeful capitalists in the West and other regions. He also distrusted the Bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, who was everything Jackson was not - wealthy, well-born, highly educated, and widely traveled.
The Bank's charter was due to come up for renewal in 1836, and Jackson might have waited until then to "slay the monster", as he called it. But Henry Clay, who planned to run for President against Jackson in 1832, decided to force the issue. Clay pushed a bill through Congress that renewed the Bank's charter four years early. He thought that if Jackson signed the bill, the president would lose votes from farmers who shared his dislike of banks. But if Jackson vetoed the bill, he would lose votes from business people who depended on the Bank for loans. What Clay had forgotten was that there were many more poor farmers to cast votes than there were rich bankers and business people.
Jackson vetoed the recharter bill. Even though the Supreme Court had ruled the Bank was constitutional, Jackson called the Bank an unconstitutional monopoly that existed mainly to make the rich richer. The voters seemed to agree. Jackson was reelected by a large majority.
Rather than wait for the Bank to die when its charter ran out, Jackson decided to starve it to death. In 1833, he ordered the secretary of the treasury to remove all federal deposits from the Bank and put the money in state banks. Jackson;s enemies called these banks "pet banks" because they were run by the president's supporters.
Delegations of business owners begged Jackson not to kill the Bank. Jackson refused. Slaying the Bank, he believed, was a victory for economic democracy.
The Bank's charter was due to come up for renewal in 1836, and Jackson might have waited until then to "slay the monster", as he called it. But Henry Clay, who planned to run for President against Jackson in 1832, decided to force the issue. Clay pushed a bill through Congress that renewed the Bank's charter four years early. He thought that if Jackson signed the bill, the president would lose votes from farmers who shared his dislike of banks. But if Jackson vetoed the bill, he would lose votes from business people who depended on the Bank for loans. What Clay had forgotten was that there were many more poor farmers to cast votes than there were rich bankers and business people.
Jackson vetoed the recharter bill. Even though the Supreme Court had ruled the Bank was constitutional, Jackson called the Bank an unconstitutional monopoly that existed mainly to make the rich richer. The voters seemed to agree. Jackson was reelected by a large majority.
Rather than wait for the Bank to die when its charter ran out, Jackson decided to starve it to death. In 1833, he ordered the secretary of the treasury to remove all federal deposits from the Bank and put the money in state banks. Jackson;s enemies called these banks "pet banks" because they were run by the president's supporters.
Delegations of business owners begged Jackson not to kill the Bank. Jackson refused. Slaying the Bank, he believed, was a victory for economic democracy.
The Nullification Crisis
Jackson's approach to governing was tested by an issue that threatened to break up the United States. In 1828, Congress passed a law raising tariffs, or taxes, on imported goods such as cloth and glass. The idea was to encourage the growth of manufacturing. Higher tariffs meant higher prices for imported factory goods. American manufacturers could then outsell their foreign competitors.
Northern states, humming with new factories, favored the new tariff law. But southerners opposed tariffs for several reasons. Tariffs raised the prices they paid for factory goods. High tariffs also discouraged trade around nations, and planters in the South worried that tariffs would hurt cotton sales to other countries. In addition, many southerners believed a law favoring one region - in this case, the North - was unconstitutional.
Based on this belief, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president called on southern states to declare the tariff "null and void," or illegal and not to be honored.
Jackson understood southerners' concerns. In 1832, he signed a new law that lowered tariffs - but not enough to satisfy the most extreme supporters of states' rights in South Carolina. Led by Calhoun, they boldly proclaimed South Carolina's right to nullify, or reject, both the 1828 and 1832 tariff laws. Such an action was called nullification.
The constitutional issue of nullification had been raised by the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 30 years before. But now South Carolinians took the idea of states' rights even farther. They threatened to secede, or leave the U.S., if the national government tried to enforce the tariff laws.
Northern states, humming with new factories, favored the new tariff law. But southerners opposed tariffs for several reasons. Tariffs raised the prices they paid for factory goods. High tariffs also discouraged trade around nations, and planters in the South worried that tariffs would hurt cotton sales to other countries. In addition, many southerners believed a law favoring one region - in this case, the North - was unconstitutional.
Based on this belief, John C. Calhoun, Jackson's vice president called on southern states to declare the tariff "null and void," or illegal and not to be honored.
Jackson understood southerners' concerns. In 1832, he signed a new law that lowered tariffs - but not enough to satisfy the most extreme supporters of states' rights in South Carolina. Led by Calhoun, they boldly proclaimed South Carolina's right to nullify, or reject, both the 1828 and 1832 tariff laws. Such an action was called nullification.
The constitutional issue of nullification had been raised by the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 30 years before. But now South Carolinians took the idea of states' rights even farther. They threatened to secede, or leave the U.S., if the national government tried to enforce the tariff laws.
Jackson was outraged. "If one drop of blood be shed there in defiance of the laws of the United States," he raged, "I will hang the first man of them I can get my hands on from the first tree I can find." He called on Congress to pass the Force Bill, which allowed him to use the federal army to collect tariffs if needed. At the same time, Congress passed a compromise bill that lowered tariffs further.
Faced with such firm opposition, South Carolina backed down and the nullification crisis ended. However, the tensions between the North and the South would increase in the years ahead.
Faced with such firm opposition, South Carolina backed down and the nullification crisis ended. However, the tensions between the North and the South would increase in the years ahead.
The Indian Removal Act
As a former settler and famous Indian fighter - Native Americans called him "Sharp Knife - Jackson had little sympathy for Indians. During his presidency, it became national policy to remove Native Americans from the east by force.
White settlers had come into conflict with Native Americans ever since colonial days. After independence, the new national government tried to settle these conflicts through treaties. Typically, the treaties drew boundaries between areas claimed for settlers and areas that the government promised to let the Indians have forever. In exchange for giving up their old lands, Indians were promised food, supplies, and money.
Despite the treaties, Native Americans continued to be pushed off their land. By the time Jackson became president, only 125,000 Indians still lived easy of the Mississippi River. Warfare and disease had greatly reduced the number of Indians in the East. Others had sold their lands for pennies an acre and moved across the Mississippi. Jackson was determined to remove the remaining Indians to a new Indian Territory in the West.
Most of the eastern Indians lived in the South. They belonged to five groups, called tribes by whites: the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole. Hoping to remain in their homelands, these Indians had adopted many white ways. Most had given up hunting to become farmers. Many had learned to read and write. The Cherokee even had their own written language, a newspaper, and a constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution. Whites called these Indians the "Five Civilized Tribes".
While the Five Civilized Tribes may have hoped to live in peace with their neighbors, whites did not share this goal. As the cotton kingdom spread westward, wealthy planters and poor settlers alike looked greedily at Indian homelands. They wanted this land for themselves, so the Indians, they decided, had to go.
The Indian Removal Act: In 1830, urged on by President Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. This law allowed the president to make treaties in which Native Americans in the East traded their lands for new territory on the Great Plains. The law did not say that the Indians should be removed by force, and in 1831 the Supreme Court ruled that Indians had a right to their lands. An angry Jackson disagreed. Groups that refused to move west voluntarily were met with military force, usually with tragic results.
The Trail of Tears: Many white northerners were ashamed. Washington D.C. was flooded with protests over the treatment of Indians. Still the work of removal continued. In 1836 thousands of Creeks who refused to leave Alabama were rounded up and marched west in handcuffs. Two years later, under President Martin Van Buren, more than 17,000 Cherokee were dragged from their homes in Georgia and herded west by federal troops. Four thousand died during their long walk to Indian Territory. Those who survived remembered that terrible journey as their "Trail of Tears". A soldier who took part in the Cherokee removal called it "the cruelest work I ever knew."
White settlers had come into conflict with Native Americans ever since colonial days. After independence, the new national government tried to settle these conflicts through treaties. Typically, the treaties drew boundaries between areas claimed for settlers and areas that the government promised to let the Indians have forever. In exchange for giving up their old lands, Indians were promised food, supplies, and money.
Despite the treaties, Native Americans continued to be pushed off their land. By the time Jackson became president, only 125,000 Indians still lived easy of the Mississippi River. Warfare and disease had greatly reduced the number of Indians in the East. Others had sold their lands for pennies an acre and moved across the Mississippi. Jackson was determined to remove the remaining Indians to a new Indian Territory in the West.
Most of the eastern Indians lived in the South. They belonged to five groups, called tribes by whites: the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole. Hoping to remain in their homelands, these Indians had adopted many white ways. Most had given up hunting to become farmers. Many had learned to read and write. The Cherokee even had their own written language, a newspaper, and a constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution. Whites called these Indians the "Five Civilized Tribes".
While the Five Civilized Tribes may have hoped to live in peace with their neighbors, whites did not share this goal. As the cotton kingdom spread westward, wealthy planters and poor settlers alike looked greedily at Indian homelands. They wanted this land for themselves, so the Indians, they decided, had to go.
The Indian Removal Act: In 1830, urged on by President Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. This law allowed the president to make treaties in which Native Americans in the East traded their lands for new territory on the Great Plains. The law did not say that the Indians should be removed by force, and in 1831 the Supreme Court ruled that Indians had a right to their lands. An angry Jackson disagreed. Groups that refused to move west voluntarily were met with military force, usually with tragic results.
The Trail of Tears: Many white northerners were ashamed. Washington D.C. was flooded with protests over the treatment of Indians. Still the work of removal continued. In 1836 thousands of Creeks who refused to leave Alabama were rounded up and marched west in handcuffs. Two years later, under President Martin Van Buren, more than 17,000 Cherokee were dragged from their homes in Georgia and herded west by federal troops. Four thousand died during their long walk to Indian Territory. Those who survived remembered that terrible journey as their "Trail of Tears". A soldier who took part in the Cherokee removal called it "the cruelest work I ever knew."
Led by a young chief named Osceola, the Seminoles of Florida resisted removal for ten years. Their long struggle was the most costly Indian war ever fought in the United States. A number of Seminoles were finally sent to Indian Territory. But others found refuge (safety) in the Florida swamps. Their descendants still live in the state today.
WESTWARD EXPANSION
The Treaty of Paris ended the American Revolution and officially gave the U.S. its independence. As part of the terms of the Treaty, Great Britain forfeited all of the land they controlled up until the Mississippi River
Americans had already been moving west, but the newly acquired land inspired even more people to cross the Appalachians. Three presidencies later, Thomas Jefferson came upon the deal of a lifetime when he purchased the Louisiana Territory (the land shaded green) from France, and instantly, the nation doubled in size. Shortly after, the idea of "Manifest Destiny" took hold of many Americans. Manifest Destiny, or "obvious fate", was the idea that it was America's divine (god-given) right to expand all the way to the Pacific. Over the next 50 years, the United States would do just that. |
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American Progress by John Gast
Directions: The painting to the right is called American Progress. It is a visual representation of the United States' westward expansion. Examine the painting with your table partners. Then answer the questions below on the symbolism found in the painting:
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Oregon Trail
Go To oregontrail101.com/routewest.html and read about the Oregon Trail then play the original game here
The Annexation of Texas
Directions: Read the following information, stopping to answer the questions and complete the activities along the way. Be sure to always write in complete sentences. The story of Texas begins with Moses Austin, a banker and business owner who dreamed of starting a U.S. colony in Spanish Texas. In 1821, Spanish officials granted Austin a huge piece of land. After Moses Austin died that same year, his son Stephen took over his father’s dream. Stephen F. Austin arrived in Texas just as Mexico declared its independence from Spain. Now Texas was a part of Mexico. Mexican officials agreed to let Austin start his colony—under certain conditions. Austin had to choose only moral and hardworking settlers. The settlers had to promise to become Mexican citizens and to join the Catholic church. Austin agreed to Mexico’s terms. By 1827, he had attracted 297 families—soon known as the “Old Three Hundred”— to Texas. At the top of your page, draw a small map of modern-day Texas and label the city of Austin on it. 1. What were Mexico's FOUR conditions that Austin and his colonists had to meet in order to form a colony there? 2. Research question: Write three interesting facts about the modern-day city of Austin, Texas. Rising Tensions: The success of Austin’s colony started a rush of settlers to Texas. By 1830, there were about 25,000 Americans living in Texas, compared to 4,000 Tejanos (tay-HA-nos), or Texans of Mexican descent. Before long, tensions between the two groups began to rise. The Americans had several complaints. They were used to governing themselves, and they resented taking orders from Mexican officials. They were unhappy that all official documents had to be in Spanish, a language most of them were unwilling to learn. In addition, many were slaveholders who were upset when Mexico outlawed slavery in 1829. The Tejanos had their own complaints. They were unhappy that many American settlers had come to Texas without Mexico’s permission. Worse, most of these new immigrants showed little respect for Mexican culture and had no intention of becoming citizens. The Mexican government responded by closing Texas to further U.S. immigration. The government sent troops to Texas to enforce the immigration laws. 3. What were the Americans' and Tejanos' complaints about each other? 4. Research question: How did Mexico become independent from Spain? The Texans Rebel: Americans in Texas resented these actions. A group led by a lawyer named William Travis began calling for revolution. Another group led by Stephen F. Austin asked the Mexican government to reopen Texas to immigration and to make it a separate Mexican state. That way, Texans could run their own affairs. In 1833, Austin traveled to Mexico and presented the Texans’ demands to the new head of the Mexican government, General Antonio López de Santa Anna. The general was a power-hungry dictator who once boasted, “If I were God, I would wish to be more.” Rather than bargain with Austin, Santa Anna tossed him in jail for promoting rebellion. After Austin was released in 1835, Texans rose up in revolt. Determined to crush the rebels, Santa Anna marched north with some 6,000 troops. 5. Define the word "dictator". 6. Research question: Find three examples of modern-day dictators. Write their name, the country they lead, and how they got their power. The Alamo: In late February 1836, a large part of Santa Anna’s army reached San Antonio, Texas. About 180 Texan volunteers, including eight Tejanos, defended the town. The Texans had taken over an old mission known as the Alamo. Among them was Davy Crockett, the famous frontiersman and former congressman from Tennessee. Sharing command with William Travis was James Bowie, a wellknown Texas “freedom fighter.” The Alamo’s defenders watched as General Santa Anna raised a black flag that meant “Expect no mercy.” The general demanded that the Texans surrender. Travis answered with a cannon shot. Slowly, Santa Anna’s troops began surrounding the Alamo. The Texans were vastly outnumbered, but only one man fled. Meanwhile, Travis sent messengers to other towns in Texas, pleading for reinforcements and vowing not to abandon the Alamo. “Victory or death!” he proclaimed. But reinforcements never came. For 12 days, the Mexicans pounded the Alamo with cannonballs. Then, at the first light of dawn on March 6, Santa Anna gave the order to storm the fort. Desperately, the Texans tried to fight off the attackers with rifle fire. For 90 minutes, the battle raged. Then it was all over. By day’s end, every one of the Alamo’s defenders was dead. By Santa Anna’s order, those who had survived the battle were executed on the spot. Santa Anna described the fight for the Alamo as “but a small affair.” But his decision to kill every man at the Alamo filled Texans with rage. On your map of modern-day Texas, label the city of San Antonio. 7. About how many people were killed at the Alamo? 8. Research question: Research the Alamo as a modern-day tourist destination. Draw a picture of the Alamo, and write three facts about the Alamo that you find interesting. Texas Wins Its Independence: Sam Houston, the commander of the Texas revolutionary army, understood Texans’ rage. But as Santa Anna pushed on, Houston’s only hope was to retreat eastward. By luring Santa Anna deeper into Texas, he hoped to make it harder for the general to supply his army and keep it battle-ready. Houston’s strategy wasn’t popular, but it worked brilliantly. In April, Santa Anna caught up with Houston near the San Jacinto (san ha-SIN-to) River. Expecting the Texans to attack at dawn, the general kept his troops awake all night. When no attack came, the weary Mexicans relaxed. Santa Anna went to his tent to take a nap. Late that afternoon, Houston’s troops staged a surprise attack. Yelling, “Remember the Alamo!” the Texans overran the Mexican camp. Santa Anna fled, but he was captured the next day. In exchange for his freedom, he ordered all his remaining troops out of Texas. The Texas War for Independence had been won, but Mexico did not fully accept the loss of its territory. On your map of modern-day Texas, label the city of Houston. 9. What was the rallying cry of Sam Houston's troops? 10. Research question: Research the modern day city of Houston and write three facts that you find interesting. To Annex Texas or Not? Now independent, the Republic of Texas earned the nickname Lone Star Republic because of the single star on its flag. But most Texans were Americans who wanted Texas to become part of the United States. Despite their wishes, Texas remained independent for ten years. People in the United States were divided over whether to annex Texas. Southerners were eager to add another slave state. Northerners who opposed slavery wanted to keep Texas out. Others feared that annexation would lead to war with Mexico. The 1844 presidential campaign was influenced by the question of whether to expand U.S. territory. One of the candidates, Henry Clay, warned, “Annexation and war with Mexico are identical.” His opponent, James K. Polk, however, was a strong believer in manifest destiny. He was eager to acquire Texas. After Polk was elected, Congress voted to annex Texas. In 1845, Texas was admitted as the 28th state. 11. What were two reasons that Americans wanted Texas to remain independent? 12. Research question: Research modern-day Texas, and write about 3 historically important citizens from Texas in the last hundred years. |
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War With Mexico and Mexican Cession
Today's border with Mexico is the product of invasion and war. Grasping some of the motives for that war and some of its immediate effects begins to provide us with the kind of historical context that is crucial for thinking intelligently about the line that separates the United States and Mexico. Directions (First Things First): Read the short story below on how the U.S. ended up going to war with Mexico. Then answer the following question:
War Breaks Out in Texas: When Congress voted to annex Texas, relations between the United States and Mexico turned sour. To Mexico, the annexation of Texas was an act of war. To make matters worse, Texas and Mexico could not agree on a border. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border on the south and the west. Mexico wanted the border to be the Nueces (new-AY-sis) River, about 150 miles northeast of the Rio Grande. On April 25, 1846, Mexican soldiers fired on U.S. troops who were patrolling along the Rio Grande. Sixteen Americans were killed or wounded.This was just the excuse for war that President Polk had been waiting for. Mexico, he charged, “has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil.” Two days after Polk’s speech, Congress declared war on Mexico. The Mexican-American War had begun. Directions (Continued): Below, there are 21 Mexican-American War Character Cards. Below the Characters Cards are 8 tasks for students to complete. Students must browse through the Character Cards to find the people described in each task. As always, make sure to answer all questions in complete sentences. 1. Find someone who fought in the war—on either side. Who is the person? What was their experience like? 2. Find someone who supports the U.S. war with Mexico. Who is the person? Why do they support the war? 3. Find someone who opposes the U.S. war with Mexico. Who is the person? Why do they oppose the war? 4. Find someone who has an opinion on why the United States is at war with Mexico. Who is the person? What is their opinion about why the United States is at war? 5. Find someone who saw things in the war that shocked them. Who is the person? What shocked them? 6. Find someone who lives in a different part of the country than you do—or lives in another country. Who is the person? What do you agree on about the war? What do you disagree on? 7. Find someone who stands to gain from the war. Who are they? How might they benefit? 8. Find someone who stands to lose from the war. Who are they? How might they suffer? Directions (Last, but not least): Complete the reading below. Then, check out the map to the right. This map shows the land acquired by the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. As a final task, consider the different perspectives you've gained from this module. Then answer the following questions:
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: Early in 1848, Mexico and the United States signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa-duh-LOO-pay hih-DAHLgo). Mexico agreed to give up Texas and a vast region known as the Mexican Cession. (A cession is something that is given up.) This area included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico, as well as parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Under this agreement, Mexico gave up half of all its territory. In return, the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million. It also promised to protect the 80,000 to 100,000 Mexicans living in Texas and in the Mexican Cession. Most of these promises, however, were not kept. In Washington, a few senators spoke up to oppose the treaty. Some of them argued that the United States had no right to any Mexican territory other than Texas. They believed that the Mexican-American War had been unjust and that the treaty was even more so. New Mexico and California together, they said, were “not worth a dollar” and should be returned to Mexico. Other senators opposed the treaty because they wanted even more land. They wanted the Mexican Cession to include a large part of northern Mexico as well. To most senators, however, the Mexican Cession was a manifest destiny dream come true. |
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